Overview
Intricately woven tissues and richly
patterned gold brocades and flowered muslin were the monopoly of Indian
craftsperson (Krishna, 1967).
Indian crafts of all ages had much
more to offer than just visual appeal. The present age is also overwhelmed with
the diversity in design and techniques of textile products, but so many of them
carry just a shallow visual appeal. Handcrafted textiles of India are ecstatic
for senses through detailing, design, and color, visual appearance of the dyed
fabric, or by weave and colored threads, or by an imposition of print on surface
(Krishna, 1967, p. 1). They have a long
drawn history starting from Harappan civilization (3000-2000B.C.) (Pathak, 2008, p. 11) to present time and they employ maximum Indian population, second
only to agriculture.
Art of embellishing with thread resonates rich Indian heritage. In various
regions embroidered craft started as peasant’s household activities, as nomadic
embellishments, rich temple decorations in addition of richness of royal
ensembles and upholstery, or as filler for faults in intricately woven calico.
 |
| Figure 1: Ajanta painting showing white work
Source: (Bareau & Okada, 1996)
|
This paper is about a craft that
does not carry its expression through its color but is characterized by the contrasts in texture provided by the delicacy of
fine jali work and heavily embossed
stitches on fine fabrics (Mittal, 2004). Chikankari
is a white on white hand embroidery practiced in and around the present city of
Lucknow in Gangetic basin of north India. It’s known for delicacy, minuteness, evenness
and its subtle appearance which can be seen in prayer caps of Nawabs. Some
far-fetched interpretations of ancient texts suggest that Chikankari dates back from the III century B.C., or that Ajanta’s
rock paintings show early samples of Chikan
embroidery (Manfredi, 2004).
The danger posed to this craft is commercialization which governs the
mass production. With industrialization, this heritage lost touch with sources
of its raw material and its processing, to cater to the expectations of
swiftness, sameness, regularity, and standardization. The greatest concern is
the visual appeal of the craft itself, as it has lead to ignorance of
associated skills and resorting to processes that have harmful impact.
This paper does not suggest starting romance with the past and retreat to
its views but definitely there are traditions that can be perpetuated. The lost
processes of washing and printing with organic and medicinal herbal ingredients
were strengths of Chikankari. This sustainable,
ethical and organic processes call for a vision of restoration.
Methodology
The methodology
essentially had three parts:
· Identification
of craftsperson in Lucknow - The identification of craftsperson was based on
secondary information collected from various trusts, organizations, NGO’s and
agencies at the state level.
· Artisan
survey in the identified regions - Once craftsperson of each process was identified,
a survey of those places and artisan was undertaken. For this purpose a
detailed questionnaire was developed with socio-economic indicators. Once the
data was collected in specified format, it was analyzed and discussions with
craft revivalist and educationist undertaken to synthesize a structure of
extinct traditions.
·
Comparison and validation of data- The
comparison of data collected was undertaken with other crafts processes of
India through available literature. The details of processes were validated
trough scientific reasoning for the processes.
Heritages, and Symbolism through Ages
Chikankari was never done for personal bestowing, rather it has
always been promoted as intricate work for royalty. It deteriorated after the
abolition of feudal system but was later revived and restored post independence
by efforts of various organizations and individuals. The undercurrent roles of Mahajans (agents), who are usually
blamed for downfall of intricacy in Chikan,
were actually responsible for its sustenance through recession (M.Wilkinson-Weber, 2004). This craft still retained
its identity through ages as it is rooted in culture of the land. It has been a
white work, as white has a great significance in the Gangetic land where it
blossomed as a tradition of creating admirable
products.
Collection of Stitches
The embroidery is done in white with
thread as a primary material used in conjugation with the skill of needle; the
stitches played an inherent role in creating textures.
This embroidery got it name during the
reign of Nawabs, around 18th
century A.D., when it became highly patronized state art. Similarly the
nomenclature of stitches cannot be traced to be older. The stitches seem to
speak a language that probably was common to harems[1]. A
few interesting connotations of the shapes are listed:
 |
| Figure 2: Stitches of Chikan (Source: Author) |
· Dhania- a stitch named after coriander seed as it has
similar shape
· Chameli phool- Jasminum
officiale being the most favored motif locally called chameli is principal decorative motif of Chikan (Fig. 2)
· Karan phool- The Rig Veda
mentions karan-shobhna as
an ornate three-tiered jhumka style
ear ornament (Nayak, et al., 2007) and embroiderer
replicated the same. (Fig. 2)
· Bijli- is a gold or a silver earring worn on the ear lobes (Fig. 2)
· Kauri- a small shell which was used as form of money in
olden times (Fig. 3)
 |
| Figure 3: Stitches
inspired by centuries old decorations
(Source: Author)
|
There are few shapes like Keel,
Kangan, (Fig. 3) etc that seem to be
influenced from primitive art forms or either seem to be representing patterns
of sculptures and potteries Gupta, Kushan and Harsha’s era (3rd -7th
century A.D.). Researchers like Naqvi
feel that ‘Anshuki’ in Harshcarita
relates to modern age Chikankari (Naqvi, 2012)
This
art form, as believed by craftsperson, has currently become a mass-market
commodity, cheap, coarse work is far more common than fine work (Clare & Clare, 1999) but on the contrary many contemporary
designers have revived the finesse of aged work as seen in (Fig. 4) which are placed centuries
apart in dating.
 |
| Figure4: Quality of Chikan embroidery centuries apart |
The designs of embroidery speak of
various layers of influences from diverse cultural and religious context. The
land from Ganges to Vindhachal had various sects, religious orders that
pervaded the area and the craft is embedded in these influences and motifs
speak a deeper language of symbolism.
· As many other handicrafts of this part of India, the
most common motif is bel (creeper)
and buti (stylized flower motif), that
are a representation of vedic Indian motif tree of life which according to
Indian tradition has immense significance. It represents God, sages and people
as part of a plant (Saxena, 2010). (Fig.5)
· Lotus which according to vedic literature represents Lord
Brahma and is one of the oldest sacred symbols in the world symbolizing cosmic
balance in Buddhism it also represents Buddha. (Fig.5)
· Turanj, which is shaped as leaf of sacred banyan tree. (Fig.5)
 |
| Figure 5: Motifs of
Chikan (Source: State Museum, Lucknow, Nawab Zafar Mir Abdullah and Author)
|
· Akheri (paisley) is a fertility symbol that probably came
with the Aryans to India. The Chikan akehri
is mango shaped, wider at base compared to slender Persian and Kashmiri motif. (Fig. 5)
· Fish, most explicitly used amongst fauna is believed
to symbolizes Lord Vishnu in his Matsya
avatharam (Saxena, 2010). Fish was a
sacred symbol of Gangetic plains and Nawabs
continued the tradition even against the tenets of Islam. (Fig. 5)
The symbolic language,
strongly pervaded through eras and traditions, has maintained its essence but
the intricacy of motifs has deteriorated, which Runa Banerjee[2]
expresses as concern because “there are no engravers to carve intricate designs
which some embroiderers are still capable to embellish”.
Processes
The making of Chikan is not just about
embroidering fabric, it is a saga of various craft traditions. This was a craft
ingrained with the Indian ethos where resources in vicinity built up self
sufficiency and was reflected in the way artisans lived and almost every craft
in the surrounding regions had an association. The
tanzeb (fine muslin) cloth was spun
from nearby village Tanda[1].
The designs are carved out on sheesham
(Dalbergia sissoo) wood to make blocks with specific representation of each stitch, which
are then used by printers to print the design on calico. It is a tradition
inspired by block printers of Farukhabad[2]
as during the survey it was found that most of printers had their ancestral
roots from there. A product might pass through
various embroiderers depending on the number of stitches incorporated in it, as
each one has a specialized worker. The duration of embroidery could also vary
and, as quoted in Gulistaan Oudh, a delicate Chikan cap took up to a year to
make and even the most ordinary ones cost anything from ten to twelve rupees (Sharar, 1994, p. 172). The embroidered pieces are then bleached and washed by a very
Indianized technique to remove printing and stains that may have come during
the embroidery. The washing has its realistic
form still existing in Kalamkari and Ajrakh[3].
Revival of embroidery
Chikankari was never done for personal
bestowing, rather has always been promoted as intricate work for royalty. SEWA [4]through
its efforts for women upliftment by giving them means of sustenance has helped
in revival of Chikankari. The organizations efforts in archiving and training
besides finding new markets, standardizing wages, creating working guilds, and
creative interventions are noteworthy. The
Indian designers have saved Chikan
from ‘oblivion’. Abu Jani and Sandeep Khosla can be credited for
reviving the glory and luxury of white on white embroidery (Bajaj, 2008). There is a decree of designers
who created a demand for this craft though its cross-fertilization with other
handicrafts like beadwork, crystal and kamdani
(wirework). The prominent names among these are Tarun Tahiliani, Rina Dhaka,
Meera and Muzaffar Ali. Then there are people like Laila Tayabji and Jaya
Jaitley who have been vocal in redefining and supporting the crafts with
efforts through Dastkaar, Dilli Haat
and have made Chikan an integral part Life Styles giving it a place in some of
the most fashionable homes across the world.
 |
| Figure 6: Graduation Project 'Tassavari' (Source: Kirti Sinha, PAF) |
Academic institutes are also playing a
role through craft studies and design interventions. Simple yet modern designs have
helped rural artisans in finding new buyers and better profit margins but they
are still working for middle men (Clare &
Clare, 1999). Pearl Academy of Fashion took up a project to identify
branded Indian Craft like Fab India, Anokhi, Good Earth and create a product
range for contemporary market. This project was supported by SEWA, Lucknow and
opened immense opportunities of channeling of designer and craftsperson. The
students were sensitized towards Chikan besides creating designs that are not
for the luxury sector. The project was taken further by a student as the
graduation project ‘Tassavari’, which
was highly appreciated by the design fraternity.
The end product
has found new markets international couture or in the high street, but the
associated processes have had a slow extinction. We are a witness to the slow death of the very essence this art-form,
which was an expression of cultural heritage than just being an embellishment.
Observations
Printing with disinfectant dyes
During my research I came across some
seasoned printers who described that around few centuries back designs were
either drawn on fabric with kalam (pen)
or craftsperson used their skills of counting warp and weft of fabric (Paine, 1989). Later during the era of Nawabs
block printing of designs came into vogue, and printers took over embroiderer’s
concern of design layout, leading to creative refinement of the delicate
embellishment. The pigment used for printing initially was gerua[5]
which was later replaced by a dye locally called magenta. The physical properties described and its co-relation with
various chemicals and dyes showed that the dye being addressed is Fuchsine[6]
and it becomes magenta in color when dissolved in water; as a solid
forms green crystals. This dye is also used as disinfectant
and thus can be assumed to be user friendly. The printing solution was prepared
by adding dye to heated water emulsion of babool
gum (Acacia arabica), a medicinal
herb. All ingredients as seen have some medicinal properties.
A printer elaborated that this dye
required special process to remove the same and the quest for swift process led
to replacement of this dye with synthetic indigo- neel and artificial gum.
The introduction of colored fabrics has recently brought in hazardous zinc
oxide powder as a printing material. The race of commercialization has turned
blind eye with callous indifference to the health of worker, wearer and
ecosystem. The fumes at printing place cause nausea, headache and to survive
with it most of them work under the intoxication of tobacco powder.
Washing ecologically
 |
| Figure 7 Steaming of Ajrakh fabric on bhatti and seeping in Camel dung for bleaching (Source: Bilgrami, 1998) |
The benevolent nature of gerua and fuschine dye
had an equally interesting bleaching process practiced some three to four
generations ago. The raw materials used were goat dung and rehu[7] or in place of latter Oosar (a local grass from barren land).
Some washer-men even mention use of Yucca
elata in washing. The cloth washed in river water was steamed for a night. Here
a bhatti (clay oven) is used which is
a square construction and hollow in the middle, containing a deep bronze bowl
of water, below which a hollow fire is lit. The pile of the soaked embroideries
is supported on this bowl with criss-cross wooden sticks. This pile was covered
with a plastic cloth and left to steam all night (Paine, 1989). The steamed fabric was then washed in water and
immersed in a paste of goat dung and rehu
for a day followed by the spectacular pounding on the washboards in the river.
The fabric was finally dried in sun. A reconstruction of this
process has been possible through comparison with similar process in Kalamkari and Teli Ajrakh. The Kalamkari
fabric, after it has been washed in water and bleached by soaking in buffalo or
goat dung solution, is then washed in clean water and dried in the sun for a
few days (Trust, 2008).
An intense study of process reveals that goat dung has
traces of hydrogen peroxide, which is a mild bleach, while rehu or Oosar help in
extracting oil from stained fabric. Steaming loosens fibers and removes starch and
gum with greases and dye. The fresh dung is alkali and not only acts as a
bleaching agent, but is also absorbed by cotton fibre, making the cloth soft so
that uniformity in printing is possible. (Bilgrami, 1998)
|
Table 1:
Comparison of processes used in Chikan during various periods
|
With advent of colonial
rule (some 150 years ago) the raw material underwent a change with influences
and highly alkaline soap replaced the organic mixture. In my sample set of
washer men interviewed none uses the above technique of steaming now, but few
were aware of it. Post independence they have been using chemicals like
hydrochloric acid, bleaching powder, baking soda, caustic soda and washing
soap.
 |
| Figure8 Chemical bleaching of Chikan fabric on riverbed (Source: Author) |
The bleaching process in
vogue is damaging the product itself as such strong chemicals make the fabric
less durable and weak. The concern here is not just about loss to product but
the fact, brought out during interactions with washer-men, that it is always
women of the house who have to finish cloth with heavy irons. The reason is not
just women’s involvement in supporting the economy of the household but an
ironical fact that none of the male in the family are left with limbs that are
strong enough to lift heavy weight, due to reaction of chemical on their skin
and muscles.
The chemicals also cause
a havoc for aquatic life also as caustic soda (NaOH) and washing soap
are highly alkaline effluents and lethal to all types of stream life, including
bacteria. Excessive amount of nutrients change the algal community from one of
great diversity
of
species to one of a few; the species which are eliminated are commonly those
which form the food of the herbivorous animals which in turn feed the fishery
resources of the area (Datta, n.d.).
Vision through inferences
The concern for the environment and
workers calls for revival of the processes used in past. They need not be reciprocated
the same way they were existing hundreds of years before but with modern inputs
of conservation and alternative use of resources to save fossil fuel.
 |
| Figure 10 Vision of a greener process of Chikankari |
The printing can easily be reverted to
magenta or red oxide that is disinfectant and is beneficial to workers without
any change in process or training. Steaming of cloth needs restoration and
alternate energy sources like solar or electric energy could be used which
would save fuel and carbon dioxide pollution. The water could be recycled
instead of using river water as being done at Bodhi Foundation[8],
Baroda that recycles water without using electricity for the effluent treatment
process. This eco-technology filters water through sand and gravel and uses a
bio-active medium found in the roots of plants to treat dye from waste water (Bodhi, 2009). Other environmentalists believe
that the microbial consortia deployed in the use of this technology are
harmless and indigenously found in nature. This is an environmentally benign
process that has no harmful impact on the surrounding ecosystem including on
human or animal health. (Feineigle, 2012).
[1]
A place known for fine weaving of cotton fabrics 100km north of Lucknow.
[2]
A place known for block printing since vedic era, 150km from present centre of Chikankari-
Lucknow.
[3]
They even could have taken influences from Farrukhabad as historians believe it
to be the origin of all natural dye printing in India.
[4]
Self Employed Women’s Association
[5]
A red ochre pigment, that comes from the earth
which is an admixture of iron, which produces this color.
[6]
rosaniline hydrochloride is a magenta
dye with chemical formula C20H19N3·HCl
[7] A soap which is a dry acidic salt extracted from the
earth and in appearance like white sand
[8] All waste water or effluent at Bodhi is treated and
cleaned to a level that it is completely recycled within the workshop.
[1] A
dwelling for ladies of royal families, generally wives and mistresses of a
ruler.
[2]
CEO, Self Employed Women’s Association, Lucknow, and an organization working on
Chikankari revival.